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영어

This paper explores the notion of “secularism” in the premodern East Asian, specifically Chinese, context with a focus on Buddhism. The first question entertained is the notion of premodern Chinese “secularism.” Does premodern Confucianism qualify as such? Here one runs into the problem of applying modern concepts with premodern practices, not to mention the Western bias in the definition of categories like “religion” and “secularism.” Although the secular orientations of Confucianism are well-known, I maintain that Confucianism maintains stronger religious inclinations than often acknowledged, via its commitment to ritual (li 禮), whereby one carries the reverence of religious ceremony into all aspects of life. The Confucian ritual program is based in a belief in a moral order pervading the universe and a world sympathetic to human goodness exhibited through moral behavior. A belief in the notion of “sympathetic resonance” (ganying 感應), a belief in a force that infuses the cosmos susceptible to human influence, provides an underlying basis through which each of China’s three premodern traditions are contributing partners in maintaining the natural and social order. The Buddhist contributions and amelioration to the Chinese “secular” order are examined through the specific writings of Zanning 贊寧 (919-1001), the leading Buddhist at the early Song dynasty court. His proposals offer a window of possibility into how Buddhism adapted to the Chinese “secular” milieux, became domesticated, and incorporated into the bureaucratic structure as an essential component of an overarching Chinese tradition. Ultimately, Zanning advocates for a tradition of Buddhist Ru 儒 and a program for Buddhist junzi 法門君子 as the pinnacle of Buddhist involvement in the Chinese secular context.