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The Indianized Champa was a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is today central and southern Vietnam from approximately the second century before being absorbed and annexed by Vietnamese Emperor Minh Mạng in 1832. Champa was preceded in the region by a kingdom called Linyi (林邑, Chinese), or Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese). Champa reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th centuries AD. As seafaring people, the Cham were highly active and established a network of trade including the major ports at Vijaya, Kauthara, Panduranga, etc. but also extending into the mountainous hinterland. In the process Cham people constructed the Champa mandala by strengthening foreign relations. Afterwards Champa began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt. The dominance of Champa started to give way to in the 10th century. In particular, in the Cham-Vietnamese War (1471), Champa suffered serious defeats at the hands of the Vietnamese. Meanwhile, Vietnamese foreign policy worsened disparities for the Cham prisoners of war. On the other hand, the northern capital of Indrapura was sacked by Vietnamese in 982, and many northern Cham muslims sought asylum in Hainan. From the late 15th century, a second wave of refugees was crossing from Champa to the neighboring Southeast Asian countries. In such situations, the Cham people degraded to the status of the Cham minority. There are also concerns that the Vietnamese government’s emphasis on discrimination and exclusion further marginalized the Cham community. In this regard, the Cham views on the southward expansion of the territory of Vietnam would help to relativize the smokescreen of Vietnamese national historiography.
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Champa, Cham people, Mandala, Vietnam, Cham minority
占城, 占城人, 曼茶羅, 越南, 占族
