Luojiao(羅敎), which orginated in mid-Ming(明) period at Miyun district(密雲縣), nothern Zhili(直隸), by mid-Qing(淸) period was disseminated to Zhejiang(浙江), Jiangsu(江蘇), Jiangxi(江西), and Fujian(福建) of southern China, through various routes. The spread of Luojiao was accompanied by temple(庵堂)-building, so I suggest that the both were closely related with each other. It is worthy to note that these Luojiao temples, after Luozu(羅祖)’s opening of a temple, were established not only at big towns such as Hangzhou(杭州) and Suzhou(蘇州) related with Grand Canal, but remote and secluded places in the mountains and areas of dwellers of make-shift huts(棚民) of inland area over Zhejiang(浙江), Jiangsu(江蘇), Jiangxi(江西), and Fujian province(福建省). Among the functions of Luojiao temples, needless to say that they had the function of propagation by satisfying people's religious desires, there were functions of mutual assistance among adherents and of providing social security for adherents who left native place and were not under the protection of kinship. Life and death of drifting homeless peoples such as boatmen of tribute fleets(漕運水手) and dwellers of make-shift huts(棚民) were deeply related with these temples. But the supports such as a surrogate family to turn to in old age, caring for the sick, and funeral rites and cemeteries by temples were given, I suggest, provided that the beneficiaries had subscribed a substantial sum of money to the temples or labored for cultivation of tillage belonging to the temples. The temples provided boatmen of the tribute fleets, drifting homeless peoples with the profound sense of comfort. At the last stage of reign of Emperor Qian-long, socioeconomic development reached the limits and the contradictions grew more and more intensifying. Under the such circumstances, founding temples was related with the movement for drifting homeless peoples to attempt to establish their own stable bases. Until the destruction of Luojiao temples in 1768(the 33rd year of Qian-long's reign), the nature of the boatmen's organization is consistent. With the suppression of Qing government, however, the religious nature of Luojiao boatmen of tribute fleets was eliminated, and only characteristics as a underground anti-governmental, secret society which massed with economic interests remained. Later, this society shifted into Qingbang(Green Gang: 靑幇). In 1768, confronting with Queue-cutting cases(割辮案) which originated in Jiangnan provinces, spread Shandong province and played a role in the collective fear, Emperor Qian-long ordered to suppress popular religions thoroughly. As the result, a severe blow was struck to groups of popular religions and they were eradicated. The other popular religions which outlived the oppress turned more and more underground secret societies. It seems that such a way of managing groups of popular religions played a role as a clue in bringing about Wang-lun(王倫)'s uprising in 1774 and the rebellion of 1796-1805. Such political measures for the maintenance of Qing's reign, on the contrary, gave rise to social unrest and gave way for the collapse of the regime. It is noteworthy that popular religions survived all the suppress, so we are incapable of knowing how they were deeply rooted in the society.

Luojiao(羅敎), which orginated in mid-Ming(明) period at Miyun district(密雲縣), nothern Zhili(直隸), by mid-Qing(淸) period was disseminated to Zhejiang(浙江), Jiangsu(江蘇), Jiangxi(江西), and Fujian(福建) of southern China, through various routes. The spread of Luojiao was accompanied by temple(庵堂)-building, so I suggest that the both were closely related with each other. It is worthy to note that these Luojiao temples, after Luozu(羅祖)’s opening of a temple, were established not only at big towns such as Hangzhou(杭州) and Suzhou(蘇州) related with Grand Canal, but remote and secluded places in the mountains and areas of dwellers of make-shift huts(棚民) of inland area over Zhejiang(浙江), Jiangsu(江蘇), Jiangxi(江西), and Fujian province(福建省). Among the functions of Luojiao temples, needless to say that they had the function of propagation by satisfying people's religious desires, there were functions of mutual assistance among adherents and of providing social security for adherents who left native place and were not under the protection of kinship. Life and death of drifting homeless peoples such as boatmen of tribute fleets(漕運水手) and dwellers of make-shift huts(棚民) were deeply related with these temples. But the supports such as a surrogate family to turn to in old age, caring for the sick, and funeral rites and cemeteries by temples were given, I suggest, provided that the beneficiaries had subscribed a substantial sum of money to the temples or labored for cultivation of tillage belonging to the temples. The temples provided boatmen of the tribute fleets, drifting homeless peoples with the profound sense of comfort. At the last stage of reign of Emperor Qian-long, socioeconomic development reached the limits and the contradictions grew more and more intensifying. Under the such circumstances, founding temples was related with the movement for drifting homeless peoples to attempt to establish their own stable bases. Until the destruction of Luojiao temples in 1768(the 33rd year of Qian-long's reign), the nature of the boatmen's organization is consistent. With the suppression of Qing government, however, the religious nature of Luojiao boatmen of tribute fleets was eliminated, and only characteristics as a underground anti-governmental, secret society which massed with economic interests remained. Later, this society shifted into Qingbang(Green Gang: 靑幇). In 1768, confronting with Queue-cutting cases(割辮案) which originated in Jiangnan provinces, spread Shandong province and played a role in the collective fear, Emperor Qian-long ordered to suppress popular religions thoroughly. As the result, a severe blow was struck to groups of popular religions and they were eradicated. The other popular religions which outlived the oppress turned more and more underground secret societies. It seems that such a way of managing groups of popular religions played a role as a clue in bringing about Wang-lun(王倫)'s uprising in 1774 and the rebellion of 1796-1805. Such political measures for the maintenance of Qing's reign, on the contrary, gave rise to social unrest and gave way for the collapse of the regime. It is noteworthy that popular religions survived all the suppress, so we are incapable of knowing how they were deeply rooted in the society.

Luojiao, Temples, Boatmen of Tribute Fleets, Green Gang, Queue-cutting case